ymbols and 
ymbolism
ymbols and ymbolism
Encyclopedic sources: Most writings on symbols and myths are specific to a class of symbol or even a specific myth or symbol. However, when needing to interpret a symbol, mythic or otherwise, a person needs to go to a reference-style work. There are several good sources, ranging from a "dictionary" of symbols or myths to multi-volume sets. Some of these sources of information are specifically for myths, mythology, literature, religions, or other fields. A few are specifically for symbols, although most of these sources cover the symbol only from the graphic artist's standpoint.
Sir James Frazer's The Golden Bough (Macmillan, 1911-1915; originally published 1890), in 12 volumes plus "Aftermath" volume, was one of the first efforts to collect and organize the range of primitive myths and folk beliefs across the world. This standard of objective study relating similar beliefs has long been the source of choice when seeking similarities between cultures, and attempting to penetrate the meanings of those rites and symbols. It was originally intended to be a single volume on the relation of magic to kingship, but gradually developed into a far-flung examination of primitive beliefs, especially of European peasants, as a means of getting to the original beliefs of Indo-Europeans. (Please note that Sir James Frazer refers to Aryans, which was the term then used for the cultures we now lump into Indo-Europeans.) Today many denigrate Frazer, as much due to interpretation of his writings as to his own philosophy concerning the spread of myths and their interpretations. Nonetheless, this remains one of the greatest compilation of myths and folk legends ever assembled, and thus it remains one of the standard sources for mythic information.
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Go to Bibliography of Dictionaries & Small Encyclopedias
Dictionary sources: There are dictionaries of symbolism and mythic concepts; there are dictionaries of myth and mythology; a few editors have even attempted to organize graphic symbols by alphabetical labels or obvious categories. These are usually limited to specific fields, rather than the whole potential collection of symbols or mythology, although some dream interpretation books may attempt the whole. A few people with typesetting backgrounds have attempted to categorize the most important or the most basic symbols--or emblems--in their fields. Other editors have arranged dictionaries or encyclopedias on myths and/or symbols that relate to a specific concept. Following are a few of the more basic dictionaries and one-volume encyclopedias.
General symbols dictionaries
Mythology dictionaries
Specialized symbols dictionaries
Although called an encyclopedia, J. C. Cooper's An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Traditional Symbols (London: Thames & Hudson, 1978), 208pp., is more a dictionary with encyclopedia-length articles, as well as many illustrations. The "Introduction" begins by stating, "The study of symbolism is not mere erudition; it concerns man's knowledge of himself." (Illustrated, 7) Indeed, Cooper's introduction to the book forms an excellent introduction for anyone who does not understand what symbolism is all about. The individual articles, arranged alphabetically without an index, describe the graphic symbols (where appropriate) and describe the meaning or meanings and how they have changed, as well as how the meaning varies from place to place.
The quite useful Dictionary of Symbolism (1992) by Hans Biedermann, a translation and slight abridgement of his Knaurs Lexikon der Symbole (1989), covers both symbolic concepts and graphics from a wide range geographically. Indeed, each entry gives the general concepts and broad or universal meanings, followed by the uses and/or significance for individual cultures. In his introduction, Biedermann deals forthrightly with the question of "Why study symbols, anyway?" by describing the two different attitudes with which people approach the subject (although the English translation is peculiar.) (Dictionary of Symbolism, vii) While both editions include a graphical and verbal index, the English edition has a very limited, general bibliography (4 pages.) The German edition has a more extensive, categorized bibliography (26 pages), including a number of English language books (some in German translation) and German books that have English translations (e.g., Adrian Frutiger, Signs and Symbols) which are left out of the English edition. For instance, the English edition leaves out, surprisingly, Sir James Frazer's Golden Bough, a seminal work in mythology and symbolism. The English bibliography also includes some esoteric-sounding German sources, presumably because they are referenced within the text.
Librarian Steven Olderr has put together two complementary dictionaries for students of symbolism and meaning. Symbolism: A Comprehensive Dictionary. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1986. 153 pp.; 0-89950-187-7 (hdbk); 0-7864-2127-4 (pbk, 2005)) provides a detailed examination of possible symbolic terms and a terse definition (or definitions) of each term's meaning. The book is easy to use, in part due to its heavy use of cross-references from alternate spellings as well as alternate terms. Further, within each basic entry various special contexts are listed after the main term, along with the meanings of the term within each context. Although I found some gaps in its "comprehensive" coverage, it still is one of the most useful sources for quick reference to meanings, especially given the contextual definitions found within the main definition. However, one must take the author at his word that this dictionary is aimed at helping those interpreting art and literature to find meanings therein. The second dictionary, Reverse Symbolism Dicitonary: Symbols Listed by Subject. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1992. 181 pp.; 0-89950-561-9,) is even more basic, albeit more of a unique publication. In this dictionary (of which there is to be a paperback edition in 2005) the user looks up a meaning and symbols and signs (as well as allusions, emblems, and attributes) are listed, often with contexts given within parentheses. Indeed, Olderr is one of the few authors or editors who specify in the beginning a series of terms that they will use and how the terms will be used. The author does include a 7-item, annotated bibliography in the front of the dictionary, as well as referring readers wishing to extend their research to check with the librarian at their local library for that library's particular materials.
In their collection of recent graphics, The Dictionary of Graphic Images (NY: St. Martin's Press, 1990), Philip Thompson and Peter Davenport present what they call "graphic clichés," images that have been repeated until they are familiar. "In our use of the word as applied to the graphic language we do not intend a derogatory tone. We suggest that its overuse is its greatest virtue for then we can assume a wide area of common acceptance." (Thompson & Davenport, Dictionary, vii) Arranged alphabetically by topic, each image has a brief caption followed by the country, year, and person/organization responsible. There are some, limited, one-directional cross-references. (For instance, under "X-Ray" there is an image with a heart; the image's caption gives a cross-reference to "Heart," but under "Heart" there is no reference back to the image with its x-ray showing a heart.) After each topic heading, the authors also describe what the topic item represents, e.g., Thumbtacks represent plotting, military planning, an element in pin-ups (cross-reference), and "an unofficial symbol for designers." (Dictionary, 232) This is an exceptional collection of twentieth century symbolic and signifying graphics.
Arnold Whittick, in his Symbols, Signs and their Meaning and Uses in Design, 2nd ed. (1971) creates an encyclopedia of the graphic sign, with a dictionary taking up the second half of the volume.
Categorical Bibliography of Dictionaries:
General mythology dictionaries:
(Go to geographically/culturally sorted dictionaries of mythology) (Go to topical dictionaries of mythology)
Cotterell, Arthur. A Dictionary of World Mythology. New York: Perigee Books, 1982 (papaerback); New York: Putnam, 1979. 256 pp.; 0-399-50619-5 
[PK106] BL303.C66 1982
A small but very broad dictionary of world mythologies. After the introduction, "The Meaning of Myth," the dictionary entries are arranged geographically into seven categories, then alphabetically within each geographical category. Includes a limited bibliography separated by the same geographical categories and a very limited index, primarily by proper names, with no subject indexing, unfortunately.
Geographically/culturally specific mythology dictionaries:
- Europe - Middle East (including the Levant & ancient Egypt) -
Dictionaries of African mythology:
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
Dictionaries of North American mythology:
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
Dictionaries of Central & South American mythology:
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
Dictionaries of Asian mythology:
(For the Middle East region, see it specifically.)
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
Bhattacharyya, Narendra Nath. A Dictionary of Indian Mythology. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2001, 326pp., 81-215-0862-2. BL1105.B43 2001.
Dallapiccola, Anna L. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. London: Thames & Hudson, 2002. 224pp., 0-500-51088-1. BL1105.D34 2002.
Dictionaries of mythology from Australia, Pacific islands, & the Indoneasian archipelago:
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
Craig, Robert D. Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989. 409pp., 0-313-25890-2. BL2620.P6C7.
Dictionaries of European mythology:
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
]Dictionaries of European mythology: General:
Evans, Bergen. Dictionary of Mythology: Mainly Classical. New York: Laurel Editions, Dell, 1973; Originally published Lincoln, NE : Centennial Press, 1970. 333 pp. [PE003] BL303.E9.
Sykes, Egerton; Kendall, Alan, rev. Who's Who in Non-Classical Mythology, revised ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. 235 pp., 0-19-521032-8. BL303.S9 1993.
(British - See: Celtic & British)
]Dictionaries of European mythology: Celtic & British:
Arrowsmith, Nancy, with Moorse, George. A Field Guide to the Little People. New York: Hill and Wang, 1977. 296 pp.; 0-8090-4450-1. [HK83]
Ellis, Peter Berresford. Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 1992. 232pp., 0-87436-609-7. BL900.E45 1992.
Ellis, Peter Berresford. A Dictionary of Irish Mythology. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 1989; originally published, London: Constable and Co, 1987. 240pp., 0-87436-553-8. BL980.I7E45 1989.
Lacy, Norris J., ed. The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1991. 577pp., 0-8240-4377-4. DA152.5.A7N48 1991.
]Dictionaries of European mythology: Classical (Greek & Roman):
Bell, Robert E. Dictionary of Classical Mythology: Symbols, Attributes & Associations. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1982. 390pp., 0-87436-305-5. BL715.B44.
______________. Place-Names in Classical Mythology: Greece. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 1989. 350pp., 0-87436-507-4. DF14.B45 1988.
______________. Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1991. 462pp., 0-87436-581-3. BL715.B445 1991.
Grimal, Pierre, ed. The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, translated from Dictionnaire de la Mythologie Greque et Romaine (Paris: Presses Universitaire de France, 1951) by A. R. Maxwell-Hyslop. Oxford: Blackwell, 1986. 603pp., 0-631-13209-0. BL715.G173 1986.
Stapleton, Michael. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Mythology. New York: Bell Publishing, 1978; originally published by The Manlyn Publishing Group, Ltd., 1978. 224 pp., 0-517-26281-9. [HK110] BL715.S7 1978b.
Stoneman, Richard. Greek Mythology: An Encyclopedia of Myth and Legend. London: Aquarian Press, 1991. 192pp., 0-850030. BL715.S76 1991.
(Greek - See: Classical)
]Dictionaries of European mythology: Norse/Scandinavian:
Lindow, John. Handbook of Norse Mythology. Santa Barabara, CA: ABC Clio, 2001; also published as a paperback under the title: Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 365pp., hardback = 1576072177; paperback = 0-19-515382-0. BL860.L56 2001.
Orchard, Andy. Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. London: Cassell, 2002; original edition published in UK in 1997. 494pp., 0-304-36385-5. BL860.O73 2002.
(Roman - See: Classical)
(Russian - See: Slavic)
]Dictionaries of European mythology: Slavic:
Dixon-Kennedy, Mike. Encyclopedia of Russian & Slavic Myth and Legend. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 1998. 375pp., 1-57607-063-8. BL930.D58 1998.
Dictionaries of Middle East mythology, including the Levant and ancient Egypt:
(Go to geographically sorted dictionaries of mythology)
Topical Dictionaries of Mythology:
(Return to Mythology Dictionaries heading)
Andrews, Tamra. Legends of the Earth, Sea, and Sky: An Encyclopedia of Nature Myths. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1998. 322pp., 0=87436-936-0. BL435.A53 1998.
GR820.C66 1992.
Leeming, David Adams and Drowne, Kathleen Morgan. Encyclopedia of Allegorical Literature. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 1996. 326 pp., 0-87436-781-6. PR56.A5L44 1996.
Leeming, David Adams with Leeming, Margaret Adams. Encyclopedia of Creation Myths. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1994. 330pp., 0-87436-739-5. BL325.C7L44 1994.
Walker, Barbara. The Woman's Dictionary of Symbols and Sacred Objects. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988. 563 pp.; 0-06-250992-5. CB475.W45 1988.
Go to Bibliography of Dictionaries and Single-volume Encyclopedias
Other specialized symbol dictionaries:
BL603.A72 1991.
BL603.A72 1991.
BL477.D3.
[PP219] N7830.F37 1961b.
BL435.A53 1998.
BV150.A66 1994.
[HK83].
BL303.D46 1995.
AZ108.B5313 1992.
AZ108.B53 1989.
BL311D5 1981.
AZ108.B78 1996.
[HK252].
BL603.C66.
GR820.C66 1992.
[PK106] BL303.C66 1982.
BL1105.D34 2002.
BL930.D58 1998.
[PP219]
HP086].
BL715.G173 1986.
BL311.G683 1973.
BL325.C7L44 1994.
[HO160] BL603 .L5413 1991.
BL303.M45 1988.
BR95.M396.
AZ108.R6.
GR705.S344 2001.
AZ108.S53.
[PO206] N8010.S54.
BF637.C6S7675
BF458.T45 1980
CB475.W45 1988.
AZ108.W45 1971a. Section IV.
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