During this time when mechanical explanations of life were proliferating, the world was slowly becoming electrified. Tesla and Edison argued back and forth, electrocuting animals with each other's form of current (AC or DC) for evidence, as to whose form of power was more dangerous; but as power lines slowly began to cover the globe, the question as to what effect they might have was largely ignored. Only recently had a clerk named Maxwell showed that electrical and magnetic fields were largely aspects of the same force, electromagnetism. And as Marconi made possible the transmission of radiofrequency (RF) waves, the human species suddenly became bathed in a sea of EM radiations it had never been exposed to, with the ozone layer filtering out many non-visible frequencies. Then in 1939, a genius or a crank (depending on how you look at it) named George Lakhovsky released a tract entitled The Secret of Life: Cosmic Rays and Radiations of Living Beings. There had been some discussion before his time of possible 'mitogenic' rays or "N" rays having influences on the growth and development of organisms, but it had been largely ignored.
Lakhovsky theorized that "the cell, essential organic unit in all living beings, is nothing but an electromagentic resonator capable of absorbing radiations of all frequencies." Lakhovsky suggested that cells were 'oscillating circuits,' that had natural frequencies of resonance. Having observed orientation in animals and other phenomena, Lakhovsky concluded that some of the semi-crystalline matter within the cell nucleus might exhibit electrical conductance. He coined the study of such properties 'radiobiology.' Following Lakhovsky, neovitalism had a raging revival. Wilhelm Reich claimed to discover a biological energy called orgone , closely related to but distinct from electrical energy. Professors Saxton and Burr at Yale used a supra-sensitive voltmeter to measure electrical capacitance in the skin and claimed to discover that it changed according to health and other biological changes. Professor Seymour Kirlian in the Soviet Union discovered a photographic technique that made manifest fantastic electrical displays around living organisms, also apparently correlated with their vital state and health.
In that time of tumult and distrust of public authority, the 1960s, many people began to become alarmed at the spreading growth of microwave transmission towers. Openly and aloud, they wondered what health effects the EM fields these towers generated might have on people nearby. And so many scientists, not just those on the fringe, began to investigate the relationship of EM and life, in earnest. Then, in 1977 a muckraker named Paul Brodeur stepped on the scene, publicizing a little-known study by epidemiologists Nancy Wertheimer and Ed Leeper made in 1975 which claimed to find a higher than normal incidence of childhood leukemia in those houses closest to secondary electrical wires (leading from transformers) where the highest ELF strength levels were also found. The matter bounced back and forth; as recently as 1989, the question of ELF fields radiated by electric blankets for pregnant mothers and by Video Display Terminals (VDTs) for office workers became an issue of public health concern.
Hence we shall closely examine one question in particular: what role do ELF fields play in the behavior of organisms? And is that role significant enough to consider ELF fields a risk? And what can be done if they are?
EM fields present a particular problem because in the 'real world' such fields do not spread out evenly over space. Dosimetry depends a great deal on how close one is to the center of the field, orientation, parts of the body exposed, shielding of the object, and other conditions. Strangely, exposure in ELF fields almost seems to work against typical force laws: it decreases near the generator, increases over a particular zone, and then falls off again toward the periphery of the field. Those ELF fields generated by various electrical carriers and devices are often rapidly alternating in flux and intensity. Many of these unpredictable conditions can be hard to take account of in the laboratory, which is a further obstacle to research.
Negative findings certainly do abound in the field. There are many studies that report that periodic daily exposure of cats to PF (power-frequency) 60 Hz fields for 6 to 8 months shows little or no change in behavior.[1] However, the inadequacy of many of these results is due to the same problem that occurs with tests of low-level ionizing radiation. People can be exposed to such fields for years , not just months, and the studies of long-term effects over 20 or 30 years just have not been done. Likewise, the interaction and superposition of such artificial ELF fields with natural ambient EM radiation (such as occurs in the real world but not behind lead laboratory walls) has not been examined - the possibility of a synthetic effect. And in many cases the researchers ignored entirely behavioral changes of a very subtle nature, which would have been noticed by better schedulre-controlled procedures. Nevertheless, negative data is there and cannot be dismissed; however, this paper concerns itself with positive results, and searches for possible mechanisms for such results.
Another class of ELF EM effects include circadian rhythm changes, which in turn affect biological clocks. Visible-frequency (VF) light has long been known as an important zeitgeiber with biological rhythms. Strong natural light can be an effective treatment for seasonal depression, jet-lag, and other circadian disorders. [6] It may be the case that non-VF EM frequencies may alter those rhythms. Rabbits exposed to 2950 MHz microwaves showed changes in both the amplitude and phase of the circadian rhythm of cell division.[7] In a test of monkeys exposed for 2 weeks to 39 kV/m ELF fields, 75% showed significant changes in their circadian cycles.[8] Rhythms of oxidative metabolism were phase shifted in male mice after exposure to ELF fields; most importantly, nighttime synthesis of biosynthetic enzymes in the pineal gland was reduced.[9] It is possible that even EEG rhythms may be altered by EM induction. When fields are at the upper theta range (7 Hz), increased EEG activity in the 6-8 Hz range in the hippocampus, amygdala, and centrum meridianum is noted.[10] It is possible that some of these alterations of biological rhythms may explain complaints of insomnia and changed sleep habits noted in Soviet ELF epidemiological studies, as well as sexual dysfunction (it is known that sexual arousal and performance is closely tied to somatic rhytms as well.)
A significant category of behavioral response to EM radiation has been changed levels of activity or response/ reactivity. In many cases, an avoidance reaction to the ELF fields itself has been noted. Animals will, in many cases, make a deliberate effort to step out of the field. In a 60 Hz field at 75 to 100 kV/m, rats and swine would avoid exposure, and during their inactive period would never spend time in the field.[11] (Humans are apparently able to detect and register 50 Hz fields in the 0.35 kV/m to 27 kV/m range, but do not normally display an escape reaction.) Albino rats tested in Eastern bloc countries given long-term ELF exposure showed lowered reactivity to electric footshock and deficits of performance in the shuttlebox.[12] John Ott notes that hyperkinetic activity among schoolchildren increases considerably under the multiple frequencies given off by flourescent lighting. Rabbits irradiated during four months with microwaves at 10 mW/cm sq. for 60 min. daily showed an inhibition of conditioned reflexes, and even a lack of conditioned reflexes.[13] Rats and monkeys exposed to a 2450 MHz field showed disrupted performance on all operant schedules.[14] People exposed to 2-12 Hz fields showed an increase in reaction time latency. Reduced locomotion and exploratory behavior were noted in animals in a 40 MHz field by D'Andrea; sexual behavior and dopamine/opiate-related responses were noted by Frey and Wesler to be altered in pulsed microwave fields; wild mallard ducklings were shown to alter fixed-time, schedule-controlled behavior in 3-16 Hz fields.[15]
Perhaps the most interesting influence of EM fields on animals is changes in navigational/ orientational ability. Scientists have only become recently aware of the ability of many animals to navigate utilizing the geomagnetic field. Homing pigeons, for example, often were 45 to 180 degress off course if they had bar magnets attached to their heads. Birds have piezoelectric elements in their feathers; marine vertebrates such as rays and eels also apparently utilize EM emissions for navigation, showing extreme confusion when a ferromagnetic substance is introduced into their tank.[16] It has been found that honeybees, which rely on geomagnetism, build bizarre, misshapen combs in strong ELF fields. Many microbes display a northward-swiming behavior that is reversed upon introduction of a Helmholtz coil.[17] Machin noted that an electric fish, Gymnarchus niloticus , would respond to a magnet inducing a gradient of 0.15 mV/cm; the solid state properties of its bone fine structure may act as an oscillator.[18] The question as to whether an EmF receptor might exist in humans has been tested, and it even appears to a small degree that humans may rely on EM cues. Children driven out on a school bus, blindfolded, with bar magnets atop their heads, had much more difficulty pointing the way home than a control group without such magnets.[19]
Last, but certainly not least, is the question as to how ELF fields may or may not cause discomfort, pain, and/or reduction in "quality of life." Needless to say, studies in this area have frequently been nonconclusive and highly controversial. Long-term exposure to 10 mW/cm fields produced occupational complaints in an Eastern bloc survey including dizziness and vertigo, headache, restlessness, eye pain, mood changes and irritability, nervous tension, memory loss, epigastric pain, depression, hypochondria, and fear.[20] A survey of Ed Leeper of electric powerline workers found that there was a statistically greater incidence of suicide and depression among those workers who actually worked near transformers or other sources of strong ELF fields than a control group who did not work near such ELF sources. (One researcher examined 438,000 deaths of workingmen and found that the PMR (proportionate mortality) for leukemia was greater in ten out of eleven occupations linked to EM field exposure.[21]) Yet another study by Marino found that job quitting rate in electrical-related professions was incredible, and he substantiates much of his argument by pointing out the extreme rates of health insurance for such occupations. The problem with these studies is simple; many variables impinge on the "quality of life" in a human subject, and also on his willingness to make complaints. Until good controlled studies arise to isolate out these uncontrolled variables, the Soviet studies and others need corroboration.
An important area of EM effects in organisms is, of course, thermoregulatory changes. As the ambient temperature of an organism increases, it will undertake behaviors to attempt to attain homeostasis. At a frequency of 360 MHz, significant 'hot spots' in the tail, rectum, and brain area of rats emerged - the SAR of the tail reaching as much as 50 times the intensity of the whole-body SAR.[24] Since vasodilation in the tail is a primary thermoregulatory mechanism of rats, RF-induced localized heating of the tail could severely impair overall thermoregulation. Possible thermoregulatory changes might result in alterations of diet, avoidance of EM exposure, or other actions in an attempt to make up for caloric changes or discomfort.
Changes in temperature may not be as important as ionization resulting from the attendant 'charging' that occurs in an ELF field. Although often overemphasized, positive ionization has been noted to show an increase in sympathetic nervous system activity and attendant heart rate/ energy expenditure, whereas negative ionization creates a relaxation response by affecting the parasympathetic division. (It is for this reason that atmospheric changes - such as the increasing positive ionization before a thunderstorm - often create behavioral changes.) One researcher strongly suspects that ionization effects may play a role in EM behavioral effects. He correlated response to 2400 Hz fields with blood ionization.[25]
Yet another important factor is genetic, teratogenic (pre-natal) effects. It is possible that many behavioral alterations may result from ELF disruption of the genetic code involving hereditarily-linked behaviors. (Concern over ELF pre-natal effects has meant the release of a NIH warning for pregant mothers to avoid electric blankets.) When mother rats were exposed to 6000 MHz fields at 35 mW/cm for 8 hours daily throughout their pregnancy, pups were born exhibiting differences in eye opening, postnatal growth, water T-maze performance, and activity in an open field test. [26] When Leghorn chicken eggs were exposed to 100 Hz, 1.2 uT fields, abnormalities in the cephalic and truncal nervous systems at high intensities were noted, and the researcher linked this to changes in observed glycosaminoglycans, which have electrostatic properties and are involved in morphogenesis and cell differentiation.[27] One researcher noted the electro-orientational nature of the formation of blastosomes in the developing foetus, and found that ELF fields did play some role in organ formation and differentiation.[28]
Most of the cellular studies involving ELF effects suggest that it is the cell membrane that is involved. There has been found a 10 to 20% alteration in calcium exchange from chick or cat brain tissues exposed to ELF fields. Neurons may be a type of cell particularly vulnerable. A transient change in the neuron firing rate of Aplysia neurons was noted during exposure to frequencies at 1 Hz and .25 V/m RMS.[29] EM fields clearly play a role in nerve regeneration; three mechanisms proposed for neurite promotion by ELF fields include redistribution of cytoplasmic material; alteration of membrane potential assymetry; and electrophoretic redistribution of charged surface molecules in the plasma membrane.[30]
Since there are specialized receptors in the retina to respond to VF (visible frequency) radiation, it is possible that there may be receptors in the brain or other parts of the nervous system that react to non-VF EM radiation. One researcher discovered that neuronal activity near the temporal lobe increased dramatically when the brain was exposed to low-frequency fields of alternating intensity, but could not establish a brain area specific to this activity.[31] There would have to be some adaptational significance for such a receptor, but biologists can only speculate on the survival value of an EM receptor in humans. Another scientist considered that such a receptor might have evolved to function in times when the atmosphere failed to block out more harmful radiation wavelengths, and remains as a vestigial holdover.[32] In general, studies in this area simply have not been done, simply because scientists do not see the evolutionary advantage conferred by such a structure, particularly in humans.
The possibility that behavior changes might be produced by EM radiations in the environment has led to all sorts of speculations. Many researchers have tried to compare outbreaks of wars, societal collapses, and other mass behavioral changes with sunspots, claiming that the changing surface of the sun results in increased emission of RF and other wavelengths reaching Earth. It is known that changes in the sun's output does create some biological changes, such as in tree ring formation, but behavioral links have not been fully established. Yet others claim that the moon may exert an influence on geomagnetism, which in turn can affect behavior, producing 'lunacy.' Studies of asylum admissions and homicide reports during the full moon in Dade County show, somewhat inconclusively, that the moon may drive us to madness after all. (What is known is that there are definite external EM zeitgiebers to many biological clocks... behavioral influences are harder to prove.)
The question as to whether humans might have an electromagnetic sense is also rather controversial. It does appear that people are somewhat sensitive to the orientation of the geomagnetic field. However, dowsers and members of geomantic societies (such as the feng-shui practicioners) claim that humans are extremely sensitized to geomagnetism, and recently there has been some speculation that this may be due to the presence of an EM field surrounding the human body. The Kirlian 'aura' photgraphs show dramatic discharges from the human body (although how much this has to do with an intrinsic field is in dispute) and the Soviets recently have devoted congresses to the topic of 'bioplasma,' i.e. the notion of a human energy field. Acupuncturists claim they can identify meridians of energy flow along the body; these may possibly correspond to the DC current flow observed during limb regeneration, (just how much the Chinese ch'i corresponds to Western concepts is difficult to say) and may explain the success reported in electrifying the needles. In general, the reputableness of this human EM-field literature is scanty.
Another area where there has been a great deal of speculation is regarding the possibility of an electromagnetic 'Cold war' going on between the superpowers even during apparent detente. When it was found that the Soviets were 'zapping' the U.S. Embassy in Moscow with low-intensity microwaves, all sorts of people started suggesting, in typical paranoid fashion, that they might be 'beaming' ELF waves as an attempt at 'mind control,' or at least to make life tough for the ambassadors. (In all likelihood, it was all probably part of an ongoing 'bugging' campaign by the Russians.) In any case, both countries do have an Electromagnetic Warfare division, and many people do suspect that ELF-based weapons designed to confuse, disorient, or weaken the morale of the enemy have been devised. However, the greatest EM danger is really posed by the nuclear arsenals of both nations: detonation of even a small aerial nuclear device could create an EMP (electromagnetic pulse) which might disrupt telecommunications and electronics severely.
The problem with current human behavioral studies is that it is hard to isolate out the causes of human behavior. Is the person suffering from depression from other causes, perhaps biochemical, or is it really only his EMF exposure which is responsible? Also, there has not been sufficient control of exposure modalities - how much of the body is exposed, for how long, at what amounts, at what frequency, in what size resonance cavity, etc. Until there are more experiments done that attempt to control these factors, the precise role of ELF fields in human behavioral changes remains, sadly, indeterminate. But the position of this paper is to urge such studies be done, immediately and carefully, for if health hazards are detected, new exposure safety standards may have to be mandated. There are clear neuronal and other biophysical alterations that could lead to behavioral abnormalities. It is possible that some people may be more vulnerable than others, perhaps even having a genetic predisposition to being more affected by ambient ELF fields.
At the most extreme, we may have to witness a partial de-electrification of our heavily EM-bathed world. Due to the fact that there is a more clear effect noteable in the RF (radiofrequency) range, new exposure guidelines may need to be set soon. As far as electrically generated ELF fields, there simply is not enough research out there. But good, controlled, human-volunteer studies with adequate controls need to be done, over long periods of time. Then we may be able to really answer the question of whether or not ELF fields pose a health hazard.