I.  Florida Economy Doing Well

     On Labor Day 1999, Florida’s economy appears to be booming.  Unemployment rates have been steadily dropping for some time, from 8.3% in 1992 to 5.5% in 1995 to 3.9% by June of 1999.  Total non-agricultural employment has also been rising rapidly; by June 1999 it was up 3.5% from a year earlier, placing Florida #1 among the ten most populous states in this area.

II.  Florida incomes

     Coupled with eight years of economic expansion, incomes of Florida residents have been rising, although not as rapidly as for the nation as a whole.  1998 Florida per capita income was $25,922, which was 97.9% of the U.S. average.  This represents a 4.5% increase over the previous year.  Florida’s per capita income is almost 9% above the average for the eight southeastern states (Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware).

      Median income for a family of four in Florida was $49,913 in 1997, or 93.6% of the U.S. average.  This placed Florida 32nd out of the 50 states.  Of the southeastern states only West Virginia had a lower median.

III.  Wages in Florida

     For working people in Florida, the trend in wages is more important than trends in income.  This is because income figures also include non-wage forms of payment such as returns from capital and investment.  Looking at wages, Florida appears comparatively worse than it does in income terms.  As of the fourth quarter of 1998, the Florida average yearly wage was $30,150, only 89.6% of the national average.

     Similarly, the median hourly wage for all workers in the state in 1998 was $10.10/hour, 89.5% of the U.S. average.  This is lower than for all states of the Southeast Region other than West Virginia.  Despite the current economic expansion, median hourly wages in Florida adjusted for inflation have dropped since 1989 (the peak year of the last business cycle peak).  In constant 1998 dollars they fell from $10.24/hour to $10.10/hour.  In contrast, all other states in the region increased their wage levels during this period.

     The paradox that real wages declined while incomes rose is explained by a combination of factors: more people now work two jobs, more family members work, more of the state’s income takes the form of return on investment rather than wages for work performed.

IV.  Low Income Workers, Inequality, and Poverty

     Florida has a large concentration of workers earning very low wages.  As of 1997, fully 9.2% of the state’s workers earned the national minimum wage ($5.15/hour) or less.  This compares with a national average of 7.7%; only 10 other states had a higher percentage of workers with such extremely low wages.  Within the Southeast Region only one state had a larger percentage.

     The number of Florida workers earning less than the wage needed to keep a family of four above the poverty level ($7.79/hour in 1997) was also high.  Fully 33.2% of Florida workers were at this level of the “working poor”, compared to a national average of 28.6%.  Only 13 states had a higher average; regionally only West Virginia had a higher percentage of low wage  workers.

     In 1998, fully one out of five Florida workers made only $6.70/hour or less.  Only 13 other states in the nation had a lower figure.  All Southeastern states but one did better.   In 1989 Florida had ranked 27th in the nation on this measure but by 1998 it had dropped to 37th of the 50 states.  Clearly, Florida’s low-wage workers have not shared in the prosperity of the 1990s.

     Meanwhile, Florida’s rich are getting richer and its poor are getting poorer.  A 1997 study found that inequality grew from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s.  In that period, the state’s families in the lowest 20% of the income distribution lost 23% of their real income, the middle 20% lost about 2.4%, and the state’s richest increased their real income by approximately 5.5%.

     As one would expect given the high incidence of low wages, there is a high level of poverty in Florida.  In 1996-1997 (the latest dates for which information is available), 14.3% of Florida’s population lived in poverty, well above the national average of 13.5% and 16th highest in the nation.  Only West Virginia and Georgia have higher rates in the eight Southeastern states.  Even if poverty has dropped further in 1998-1999, it is unclear that Florida has succeeded in getting back to its 1989 level of 13.1% (we await further data).  Even if it were to drop to that level, it would be unprecedented for such a long economic expansion to have produced no drop in the poverty level, only a return to previous levels.

V.  Workplace Conditions and Government Worker Protections

 Income is not the only measure of worker well-being.  Also important is the way employees are treated in the workplace and government policies which protect workers.  On this score, Florida rates poorly.  The state is one of only seven in the nation that has no minimum wage for workers not covered by the national minimum wage.  Florida’s unemployment laws are written so restrictively that it has among the lowest percentage of unemployed qualifying for benefits in the nation.  The state ranks in the bottom thirteen states nationally in the number of other worker protection statutes.

     Health insurance is important to all workers and their families.  Florida has 19.6% of its residents without such coverage, placing it 45th of the 50 states in this area.  And unlike other statistics, this one has not been improving at the end of the 1990s; it has been getting worse as the economic expansion continues.  From 1994 to 1997 the percent of Floridians without health insurance  grew from 17.2% to 19.6%.

     Unions are perhaps the primary mechanism for U.S. workers to raise their living and working standards.  Therefore, the condition of unions within a state is another indicator of worker well-being.  For all workers, Florida’s unionization rate was 6.7% of eligible workers, ranking the state 44th out of the 50 states.  In the private sector, the rate was 4.2%, 49th in the nation.  State public sector workers were 28.1% unionized, which is more typical.  Florida ranks 27th out of 50 states on this measure.  State government policy is generally hostile to unions – a “right-to-work” provision in Florida’s constitution ensures that workers covered by a union contract need not pay their union dues.

     The state’s tax burden is about average for the U.S., despite its reputation for being a low tax state.  In 1998 its tax burden was 95.3% of the U.S. average, 26th of the 50 states.  Total per capita taxes of $3,788 put the state 22nd highest in the nation.  But Florida is actually a high tax state from a worker’s perspective, because the state’s highly regressive tax structure forces workers and low income people to pay a disproportionate percentage of the taxes that are collected.  Several studies have found the state’s taxes to be among the most regressive in the nation.

     Florida’s public policies are much less favorable than those of most states with regard to  workers.  This is part of a longer term history in the state, where “cheap land, low taxes, and low wages” have been used to sell the state to investors.

VI.  How Florida’s Counties are Faring

     Data for Florida’s counties show a sharp discrepancy in wages.  While a relatively small group of large, mostly urban counties are doing quite well, average wages for most of the other counties are far below the state average.  The full report provides data on recent employment, unemployment, and wage trends for each of Florida’s 67 counties.

VII.  Conclusion

     Despite a booming economy, Florida’s workers are not sharing fully in the prosperity, and are not a priority of the state’s public policies.  1998 average hourly wage rates had not yet caught up to 1989 levels; incomes rose slightly only because of longer hours, multiple job holding, additional  bread-earners per family, and growing non-wage income.

     Compared to the nation and the other states of the Southeast Region, on most measures of worker well-being Florida is sliding backward.  On this Labor Day we should take notice that workers in our state often labor under standards and conditions well below national or regional norms.  In short, our state, our workers, and our policy makers could be doing better.
 
 

I.  Florida Economy Doing Well

     On Labor Day 1999, Florida’s economy appears to be doing very well.  The state’s June 1999 unemployment rate was 3.9%, one of the lowest rates in the past twenty-six years.  This rate is also below the national average, which was 4.3% that month.  This low unemployment rate continues a falling trend: in 1992 the state unemployment rate was 8.3%, falling to 5.5% by 1995; and then falling below 4.0% in the second half of 1999.  (July 16, 1999 FL Employment and Unemployment press release, FL Dept. of Labor and Employment Security) The graph on the following page demonstrates the state’s falling unemployment rate.

     Coupled with a falling unemployment rate, total non-agricultural employment in the state has been rising rapidly: a 3.5% increase over a year ago as of June 1999.  This percentage job growth placed the state #1 among the 10 most populous states in the nation.  As the Florida Department of Labor and Employment Security (FDLES) notes, as of June 1999, “Florida’s economy currently remains as one of the nation’s strongest job markets”.  (July 16, 1999 FL Employment and Unemployment press release)

II.  Incomes in Florida
     Given eight years of continued expansion, the income of Florida residents should be rising considerably.  And in fact, per capita income levels have been growing.  In 1998 (the latest year for which statistics are available), per capita income in Florida was $25,922, a 4.5% increase over 1997 levels.  This is 97.9% of the U.S. average ($26,482) for that year.  (Website: http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/spi/pcpi.htm)   Despite the fact that per capita income in the state was slightly below U.S. averages, 30 other states had lower averages, placing Florida 20th out of all 50 states on this measure.

       However, the growth in Florida’s per capita income has been slightly less rapid than that for the nation as a whole.  The year 1998 was the first year in the past five years where the percentage of Florida per capita income to U.S. per capita income dropped below 98%.  The figures are given in Table 1.

Source: Website    http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/spi/pcpi.htm

     While Florida state per capita income growth rates in the second half of the 1990s were slightly less rapid than in the nation as a whole, they nevertheless grew more rapidly than the inflation rate.  Thus real per capita income has been rising in the state in the second half of this decade, albeit less rapidly than in the nation as a whole.

     While it is below national averages, the Florida per capita personal income is higher than the averages for the region of the country to which it belongs (the southeast region, comprising the eight states: Florida, Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware).  Table 2 shows the comparisons.

Source: Website        http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/spi/pcpi.htm

     Median income figures for a family of four (meaning incomes where half earn more and half earn less) for Florida were $49,913 in 1997. (Website: http://www.census.gov/hhes/income/4person.html) This is 93.6% of the national average; it places the state 32nd out of the 50 states in the nation.  Of the 8 states in the South Atlantic region (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia), only South Carolina and West Virginia had a lower 4 person family median income.  These comparisons are relatively unchanged from 1989, the peak of the previous business cycle, when the state also ranked 32nd among the nation’s 50 states and only South Carolina and West Virginia ranked lower in the region.

    Over the long run, Florida’s median 4-person family income has been relatively steady compared to the U.S. as a whole.  This is an improvement over what had been occurring from 1992 through 1996, when the state was slipping noticeably relative to the United States.  Table 3 shows the relevant figures for 1979 and 1989 through 1997.
 
 

            Year             Florida                USA             Florida/USA
            1979            $20,757            $22,395              92.7%
            1989            $37,399            $40,763              91.7%
            1990            $38,438            $41,451              92.7%
            1991            $40,484            $43,056              94.0%
            1992            $40,925            $44,615              91.7%
            1993            $40,405            $45,161              89.5%
            1994            $43,374            $47,012              92.3%
            1995            $44,626            $49,687              89.8%
            1996            $44,829            $51,518              87.0%
            1997            $49,913            $53,350              93.6%

Source: Website    http://www.census.gov/hhes/income/4person.html

     Florida remains below both national and regional averages in income for a family of four.  It is also below national averages in per capita income, although it exceeds the regional average on this score, probably due to the large number of wealthy retirees in the state compared to other states in the region.

III.  Wages in Florida

 For working people in Florida, the trends in wages are more important than trends in income.  This is because income figures include retirement, investment, and other non-wage forms of payment, thereby obscuring the actual conditions of those working for a living.  This is especially true in Florida, because of the disproportionate share of the state’s population composed of wealthy retirees living off pensions and investment income (dividends, interest, and rents).  Therefore income figures tend to overstate well being compared to the living standards of working individuals and families.

     Turning to wages, Florida looks comparatively worse than it does in income terms.  As of the fourth quarter of 1998, the Florida estimated average yearly wage was $30,150.  (Website: wysiwyg://17/http://www.dismal.com/cgi/sql_state_test.asp?State=Florida&View=Income) This is only 89.6% of the national average, much less than the state’s almost 98% per capita income ratio to the national average.

     A similar picture emerges from looking at the median hourly wage for all workers in the state.  In 1998, it was $10.10/hour, 89.5% of the national figure of $11.29/hour.  Of the eight states in the South Atlantic region, only West Virginia had a lower median wage.  And compared to the year of the last business cycle peak, 1989, median hourly wages in Florida have still fallen (from $10.24/hour to $10.10/hour in 1998 dollars) despite the uninterrupted years of prosperity from 1991 to 1999.   (Website: http://epinet.org/datazone/medhrlywages.html) Again, while incomes have risen slightly, wages have fallen slightly.  It is true that since 1995 median hourly wages have risen slightly (when they were down to $9.90/hour in 1998 dollars), but they have still not caught up to 1989 levels.

    Compared to the other seven states in the region, Florida has done the worst in 1989-1998 wage trends.  All other seven states increased their wages, while Florida’s fell slightly.  Table 4 shows the comparison.
 
 

YEAR	FLA	DEL	MD	VA	WVA	NC	SC	GA
1989	$10.24	$12.01	$12.94	$11.26	$9.63	$9.91	$9.87	$10.66
1990	$9.96	$11.83	$13.00	$11.94	$9.37	$9.81	$9.95	$10.33
1991	$9.83	$11.91	$13.00	$11.69	$9.41	$9.81	$9.81	$10.48
1992	$9.83	$12.22	$12.51	$11.66	$9.15	$9.78	$9.81	$10.43
1993	$9.93	$11.54	$12.62	$11.20	$9.47	$9.85	$9.88	$10.53
1994	$9.81	$11.02	$12.64	$11.07	$9.36	$10.02	$9.77	$10.23
1995	$9.90	$11.32	$12.86	$11.07	$9.75	$9.97	$9.70	$10.29
1996	$10.09	$11.68	$12.67	$10.56	$9.58	$10.19	$9.79	$10.50
1997	$10.02	$11.46	$12.95	$11.41	$9.96	$10.25	$10.13	$11.06
1998	$10.10	$12.08	$13.15	$12.14	$9.79	$10.46	$10.60	$10.86

Source: Website       http://epinet.org/datazone/medhrlywages.html

     Table 4 shows that in 1989 four of Florida’s neighboring states had median hourly wage rates inferior to its own.  By 1998, only one (West Virginia) had lower wage rates, and Florida was the only state to have its wage rates drop in that period.  This relative deterioration of Florida’s wage scales is not a hopeful sign for working people in the state.

     How can we explain the paradox of Florida’s slightly falling wage rates combined with its trend toward slightly rising incomes?  The explanation lies in a combination of factors: people are working longer hours, more family members are working, more people are working two jobs, and more of the state’s income is taking the form of return on investment rather than wages for work performed.  All of these trends are harmful to working people due to the increased stress from more and longer work hours and the transfer of wealth from workers to investors.

IV.  Low-income Workers and Inequality

     One of the major problems for Florida workers is the state’s extreme inequality of wage levels.  A disproportionate share of the state’s workers earn very low wages.  As of 1997 fully 9.2% of the state’s workers earned the national minimum wage ($5.15/hour) or less; the national average was 7.7%, and only 10 other states had a higher percentage of workers earning such extremely low wages.  And once again, the only South Atlantic region state with a higher percentage was West Virginia.  (Website: http://epinet.org/datazone/wdistrib_bystdiv.html)   Data are given in Table 5.
 
 

STATE, REGION	PERCENTAGE EARNING $5.15/HR OR LESS
WEST VIRGINIA	11.9%
FLORIDA	9.2%
SOUTH CAROLINA	8.5%
GEORGIA	7.9%
NORTH CAROLINA	7.1%
VIRGINIA	6.4%
DELAWARE	6.0%
MARYLAND	5.5%
SOUTH ATLANTIC REGION	7.8%
UNITED STATES	7.7%

Source:    Website    http://epinet.org/datazone/wdistrib_bystdiv.html

     If we add to these minimum and sub-minimum wage workers the other low wage workers earning less than the wage needed to keep a family of four above the poverty level ($7.79/hour in 1997), fully 33.2% of Florida workers in 1997 were at this level of the “working poor.”  The national average was 28.6%, and only 13 states in the nation had a higher average than Florida’s.  And again, all South Atlantic region states except West Virginia had less workers earning these extremely low wages.   Data are given in Table 6.
 
 

Source:    Website    http://epinet.org/datazone/wdistrib_bystdiv.html

     Another way to look at the conditions of low-wage workers is to calculate the wage of a worker in the 20th percentile, meaning a worker who makes less than 80% of others in the state, but more than 19 percent.  In 1998, such a worker in Florida earned $6.70/hour, which is lower than in all but 13 other states in the nation.  And once again, only West Virginia had a lower wage rate on this statistic among the eight South Atlantic region states.  This $6.70 hourly rate is a 6 cent improvement on the state’s 1989 rate of $6.64; in nine years such a worker had improved his or her wages by 9/10 of 1%, or essentially nothing.  Even this improvement happened only in 1998; prior to that such a low-wage worker had actually lost wages compared to 1989 in every year from 1990 through 1997.  (Website: http://epinet.org/datazone/wrates_lowwagewrkrs.html)  Clearly, the prosperity of the 1990s was not being shared with low-wage workers.  And if one goes back to 1979, low-wage Florida workers have actually lost ground; only Delaware and West Virginia of all states in the region share this unhappy fate.  Data are given in Table 7.

YEAR	FLA	MD	DEL	VA	GA	NC	SC	WVA
1979	$6.84	$7.96	$7.86	$7.14	$7.00	$6.90	$6.77	$7.31
1989	$6.64	$7.99	$7.53	$7.20	$6.68	$6.58	$6.32	$5.49
1990	$6.41	$8.23	$7.28	$7.27	$6.64	$6.49	$6.31	$5.44
1991	$6.36	$7.98	$7.58	$7.15	$6.57	$6.50	$6.30	$5.60
1992	$6.36	$7.80	$8.02	$6.86	$6.65	$6.56	$6.10	$5.70
1993	$6.38	$7.75	$7.48	$6.97	$6.50	$6.61	$6.19	$5.77
1994	$6.34	$7.73	$6.80	$6.78	$6.47	$6.67	$6.31	$5.62
1995	$6.35	$7.61	$7.12	$6.96	$6.52	$6.66	$6.48	$5.92
1996	$6.25	$7.39	$7.35	$6.72	$6.67	$6.69	$6.41	$5.82
1997	$6.36	$7.62	$7.23	$7.15	$7.01	$6.84	$6.72	$5.94
1998	$6.70	$8.06	$7.54	$7.26	$7.13	$6.99	$6.86	$6.05

Source:   Website     http://epinet.org/datazone/wrates_lowwagewrkrs.html

     While low-wage workers have only minimally shared in the 1990s prosperity throughout the entire nation, Florida is much worse in this respect than are most other states.  In 1989, Florida’s wage rate for a low-wage worker (20th percentile) was 27th highest of the 50 states; by 1998 it had dropped to 37th place; only 13 states were lower.

    Finally, in 1998 (and probably 1999) low wage workers have made some small progress in regaining lost ground from earlier losses in income, but the long-term trend for the state has been one of growing inequality.  From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, inequality grew very rapidly in the state – much more rapidly than in the nation as a whole.   A study by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities published in December 1997 found that inequality in the state had been increasing for almost two decades.  The state’s poorest 20% of families lost almost 23% of their real income from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s.  The middle 20% income lost about 2.4% in that period, while the state’s richest 20% increased their real income by approximately 5.5%.  (Website: http://www.cbpp.org/pa-fl.htm) Despite some short term gains, low-income workers are not sharing in the prosperity of the 1990s.

    Given the high incidence of low-wage work in Florida, one would expect the state to have a high poverty rate.  And indeed it does.  The average poverty level for the state in 1996-1997 (the latest dates for which information is available) was 14.3% of the population.  This is well above the national average of 13.5%, and Florida has the 16th highest poverty rate of the 50 states.  Of the eight states in the South Atlantic region, only West Virginia and Georgia have a higher poverty level.  (Website: http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/poverty97/pv97state.html)   Figures are given in Table 8.
 
 

Source: Website    http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/poverty97/pv97state.html

     It is true that Florida’s poverty level has been dropping in the second half of the 1990s.  But as of 1997 it had not dropped back to the level during the 1988-89 period, when it was 13.1%.  (Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and John Schmitt, The State of Working America, 1998-1999, p. 348)  Perhaps, with continued prosperity, it has dropped back to that level by 1999, but the figures are not yet available to tell us.  Even if that were to be true, it would be unprecedented for such a long economic expansion to have produced no drop in the poverty level, only a return to previous levels.
     Thus it appears that how well one rates Florida on Labor Day 1999 depends on where one is positioned economically.  If you are wealthy and live primarily from investment income, the state is performing wonderfully.  But if you are a worker, the performance is less stellar.  An average or a low wage worker in the state is likely to be merely recovering to the wage and prosperity levels of a decade ago, not moving ahead.

V.  Workplace Conditions and Government Worker Protections

    Income is not the only measure of worker well-being.  Also important are the way employees are treated in the workplace and government policies which protect workers.  Therefore in this section we rate the state of Florida on a number of other dimensions.  For many of these the material facts have not changed appreciably since last year’s Labor Report; in those cases we merely repeat earlier findings, while in other cases we update the figures or facts.

     Minimum Wage. One measure of a state’s public policy toward workers is the level at which it sets the state minimum wage, the wage required in the state for those escaping coverage under the federal minimum wage law. Here Florida ranks dead last in the nation: together with six other states, it has no minimum wage law whatsoever. Employers in federally exempt industries like agriculture, or in very small workplaces, are legally free to set wages as low as one cent per hour or less.

     Unemployment compensation. Another important measure is how well a state treats its unemployed. A study appearing in Southern Changes magazine (“The Climate for Workers in the United States 1997") found that Florida’s unemployment compensation laws are written very restrictively, preventing most unemployed from being eligible for unemployment compensation benefits. In a typical week, only 25.6% would qualify, which is a lower percentage than in all but eight other states. Once a worker does qualify however, Florida was no worse than the average in the amount of unemployment benefits given to each recipient.

     Permanent Disability. The same study found Florida’s maximum weekly benefit for total disability to be almost exactly average for the U.S. as a whole.

     Statutory Protections of Workers.  The Southern Changes article developed a measure rating states on the degree to which states protect workers. Subjects include anti-discrimination, drug testing, family leave, anti-AIDS discrimination, sexual harassment, right-to-work, time off to vote, minimum wage, pay for overtime, equal pay, maximum hours, right-to-know, whistle blower protection, and anti-smoking. Florida did not fare well, ranking 37th out of the 50 states. Such important protective legislation in the state is clearly inferior to national norms.
 Health Insurance Coverage. One of the most basic needs of workers and their families is health insurance coverage. Therefore, the percentage of a state’s residents with such coverage is a basic measure of their well-being. Florida fares very poorly by this measure. In 1997 (the latest year for which data are available), 19.6% of those residing in Florida had no coverage, placing the state 45th of the 50 states; only five had a higher degree of non-coverage.  Unlike other statistics, this one has not been improving at all in the second half of the 1990s; it has been getting worse even as the economic expansion continues.  In 1994, 17.2% were without coverage; by 1995 it grew to 18.3% to 18.9% in 1996 to the 19.6% in 1997. (Website: http://www.dismal.com/cgi/sql_state_test.asp?State=Florida&View=Socioeconomic) Table 9 shows the upward trend.

YEAR PERCENTAGE WITHOUT HEALTH INSURANCE

Source: Website referenced in the text immediately before this table.

     If we turn to private health insurance coverage, the state ranks equally poorly.  In 1997,  35.8% of Florida’s residents lacked private health insurance coverage, putting the state 44th out of the 50 states on this measure.  And once again, this figure has been deteriorating in the second half of the 1990s despite the continuing economic expansion.                  (Website: http://www.dismal.com/cgi/sql_state_test.asp?State=Florida&View=Socioeconomic)

     Unionization. Unions are perhaps the primary mechanism for U.S. workers to raise their living and working standards. On average, union members earn between 30-40% more than  non-union workers. They also exert greater influence over their working conditions, and they have contractual guarantees against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment. Therefore the condition of unions within a state is another indicator of worker well-being. In this regard, states can be measured in two ways: the size and strength of unions, and public policies toward unions which either encourage or inhibit their existence. On both fronts, Florida fares very poorly compared to U.S. norms.

     For all Florida workers, the 1998 unionization rate is 6.7% of eligible workers, approximately half of the U.S. rate of 13.9%.  This ranks Florida 44th out of the 50 states.  In the private sector, union membership is 3.2% of eligible workers, again less than half the U.S. rate of 9.5% and ranking the state 49th out of 50.   For private manufacturing workers, the union membership rate in the state is 5.4%, slightly more than one-third of the U.S. rate of 15.8%, and placing the state 46th out of 50.
(Barry Hirsch and David Macpherson, Union Membership and Earnings Data Book, 1999 edition)

      Florida’s public sector unionization rates are much higher than those in the private sector.  Its public sector workers are 28.1% union members, compared to a U.S. average of 37.5%. While this rate is almost 10% behind average U.S. rates, Florida is close to the middle of U.S. states in its public sector unionization rates -- it is 27th of the 50 states. (Hirsch and Macpherson 1999)  Clearly, public sector workers in Florida have larger and therefore stronger unions than do those in the private sector.

     Compared to 10 years ago, Florida’s unionization rates have fallen in every category except public sector workers.  For the workforce as a whole, unionization has fallen from 1988 to 1998 from 7.8% to 6.7%; for private sector workers from 4.5% to 3.2%; for private manufacturing workers from 6.2% to 5.4%.  However, for public sector workers it has increased from 26.6% to 28.1%.  (Hirsch and Macpherson 1999)

     The state government’s public policies aim to keep unions weak. Florida is one of only two states with a ban on negotiated requirements of union membership for employees in unionized establishments (also known as a “right-to-work” provision) built into the state constitution. Twenty- one states have such provisions, but most are merely state laws, not constitutional requirements which are much harder to change. “Right-to-work” provisions of this nature hurt unions by allowing workers covered by a union contract to not pay their union dues, i.e., be “free riders” accepting the benefits of union coverage without paying for it. Approximately 24.7% of workers in Florida covered by a union contract are “free riders.” (This means that union coverage in Florida is 8.9% even though union membership is only 6.7%). But unions are hurt financially and are unable to represent their members and the workforce as a whole as effectively when almost one-quarter of those they represent do not pay their dues, as is the case in Florida.

     Tax Burden. Florida has traditionally been thought of as a “low tax” state. While that may have been true in the past, recent history shows the state to be very average in its tax burden.  According to the U.S. Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis, in 1998 Florida’s tax burden on its citizens was 95.3% of the U.S. average, which placed the state 26th out of the 50 states on this measure.  Total per capita taxes were $3,788 in that year, putting the state 22nd highest in that category. And the per capita tax rate was 14.7%, a very average 25th of the 50 states.  (Website: wysiwyg://17/http://www.dismal.com/cgi/sql_state_test.asp?State=Florida&View=Income)  But Florida is actually a high tax state if viewed from a worker’s perspective.  This is because working people and those in the lower income brackets pay a disproportionate percentage of the taxes that are collected. Both Southern Changes magazine and the Citizens for Tax Justice have found that Florida has one of the most regressive tax structures in the nation. (“Regressive” means lower income people pay a higher percentage of their income for state and local taxes than do their wealthier counterparts.)  In fact, in 1995 low-income Floridians (bottom 20%) paid 3.9 times as high a percentage of their income as did the high-income (top 20%) residents. Thus, the tax burden on low and middle income Florida workers is actually quite high--simply because it is not distributed equitably among the wealthier and poorer segments of the population. On this measure, Florida is at the extreme fringe among U.S. states.

    Thus, we find that Florida’s public policies toward workers and the workplace conditions in the state are, on average, inferior to those of the country as a whole. From minimum wage to unemployment compensation, health insurance coverage to union rights and protections, statutory protection of workers’ rights to distribution of the tax burden, Florida has rather consistently been among the very least worker-friendly states in the nation.

     This is part of a longer term history of the state.   In the past conscious strategies employed to attract businesses to the state have resulted in the low-wages and substandard conditions for workers.  Some political leaders and economic development officials have viewed (and view)  Florida’s low-wages as a positive feature of the state. An article in the January 11, 1998 issue of The Florida Times-Union in Jacksonville notes this:

     Florida has always been known for its low-wages, said John Haley, a vice president of business recruitment at Jacksonville’s Chamber of Commerce. For years, these low-wages were used as a carrot to attract potential employers to Florida, he said.

     “What Florida had done for many years was sell our poverty,” he said. “We sold cheap labor, cheap land and no income tax.”

     While low pay attracted business to Florida, it also filled out its employment  base with low-paying jobs.

VI.  How Have Florida's Counties Fared?

    As in other large states, employment opportunities and earnings in Florida vary greatly across geographical areas and labor markets.  To provide a more detailed picture of how workers fared during the current economic expansion throughout Florida, we examined trends in the employment, unemployment, and earnings for Florida's 67 counties.

     Job creation is a vital part of all economic expansions, providing employment for large portions of job seekers.  Florida's employment growth over the current expansion has been dramatic, as data for 1990-1999 show.   Table 10 arranges the 67 counties according to their rates of employment growth, from most rapid to negative.  As these tabulations show, 44 counties (from Flagler to Charlotte) had growth rates that exceeded 12.1 percent, the national average. Employment in 24 of these grew at least twice as fast as the national average.
 
 

	1990	1999	Percent Change
U.S., total	118,335,000	132,606,000	12.1
Florida	6,038,333	7,100,816	17.60
Flagler	11,008	16,406	49.0
Calhoun	4,043	5,881	45.5
Osceola	55,186	79,647	44.3
Wakulla	7,416	10,659	43.7
Lake	60,302	86,057	42.7
St. Johns	41,185	57,868	40.5
Hernando	33,204	46,604	40.4
Santa Rosa	36,478	50,125	37.4
Collier	69,588	94,310	35.5
Glades	2,900	3,890	34.1
Columbia	18,191	24,347	33.8
Clay	50,788	67,973	33.8
Seminole	157,892	208,881	32.3
Pasco	101,442	132,382	30.5
Okaloosa	61,099	79,157	29.6
Nassau	21,029	27,185	29.3
Hendry	11,272	14,521	28.8
Orange	365,302	467,388	27.9
Manatee	90,585	115,443	27.4
Lafayette	2,220	2,795	25.9
Palm Beach	400,735	502,384	25.4
Hillsborough	428,009	534,698	24.9
Washington	6,686	8,334	24.6
Levy	10,124	12,603	24.5
Walton	11,843	14,662	23.8
Sarasota	117,988	145,955	23.7
Gilchrist	3,726	4,558	22.3
Okeechobee	12,670	15,456	22.0
Marion	77,865	94,797	21.7
Sumter	11,477	13,725	19.6
Franklin	3,504	4,189	19.5
Indian River	36,696	43,724	19.2
Broward	621,946	734,227	18.1
Pinellas	397,585	465,468	17.1
Lee	149,050	173,601	16.5
Highlands	23,174	26,807	15.7
Leon	107,260	123,876	15.5
Alachua	89,123	102,473	15.0
Bay	54,944	63,090	14.8
Suwannee	11,011	12,636	14.8
Gadsden	16,815	19,264	14.6
Duval	327,995	375,356	14.4
Monroe	40,061	45,416	13.4
Charlotte	39,429	44,249	12.2
Citrus	30,398	33,768	11.1
Hardee	8,261	9,141	10.7
St. Lucie	63,170	68,978	9.2
Baker	7,398	7,989	8.0
Liberty	2,110	2,276	7.9
Madison	6,311	6,784	7.5
Putnam	24,192	25,945	7.2
Volusia	159,440	170,529	7.0
Bradford	8,751	9,333	6.7
Polk	180,814	191,641	6.0
Escambia	112,918	119,525	5.9
Martin	42,258	42,258	5.7
Brevard	191,230	199,875	4.5
Dade	939,800	978,752	4.1
Union	3,506	3,546	1.1
DeSoto	9,028	9,071	0.5
Dixie	3,451	3,434	-0.5
Jefferson	4,879	4,762	-2.4
Gulf	4,788	4,665	-2.6
Jackson	17,337	16,872	-2.7
Holmes	6,380	6,208	-2.7
Taylor	7,179	6,801	-5.3
Hamilton	3,888	3,202	-17.6

CALCULATIONS BASED ON  MONTHLY STATISTICS FROM THE FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT SECURITY, BUREAU OF LABOR MARKET AND PERFORMANCE INFORMATION

     Mirroring employment growth, joblessness for almost all of Florida’s counties declined considerably between 1990 and 1999.  Table 11 arranges Florida's counties according to the percent change in unemployment rates, with the most rapid declines listed first.  To get a sense of the pace of the unemployment decline throughout the state, note that the top 29 counties (from Lake to Pinellas) dropped by 32.6 percent or greater, which is at least 1.5 times the national decline.  At the same time, however, unemployment actually increased for 4 counties, remained unchanged for two, and declined less rapidly than the national average for 18.  Of these 24 counties (from Lee to Gulf), unemployment rates for 16 currently exceed that for the nation.

                                                                                                          Ratio of Florida/US unemploment rates

U.S., Florida, and Counties	1990	1999	% Change	1990	1999
United States, total	5.6	4.4	-21.4	100.0	100.0
Florida, total	5.8	4.1	-29.3	103.6	93.2
Lake	7.9	2.5	-68.4	141.1	56.8
Sumter	7.2	3.1	-56.9	128.6	70.5
Lafayette	5.8	2.5	-56.9	103.6	56.8
Union	5.9	2.8	-52.5	105.4	63.6
Polk	9.4	4.5	-52.1	167.9	102.3
Hernando	6.7	3.5	-47.8	119.6	79.5
St. Johns	5.1	2.7	-47.1	91.1	61.4
Madison	8.2	4.4	-46.3	146.4	100.0
Pasco	5.9	3.3	-44.1	105.4	75.0
Columbia	8.4	4.7	-44.0	150.0	106.8
Suwannee	7.5	4.2	-44.0	133.9	95.5
Gilchrist	7.1	4.0	-43.7	126.8	90.9
Baker	7.2	4.1	-43.1	128.6	93.2
Orange	5.2	3.0	-42.3	92.9	68.2
Hillsborough	4.6	2.7	-41.3	82.1	61.4
Seminole	4.9	2.9	-40.8	87.5	65.9
Duval	5.4	3.2	-40.7	96.4	72.7
Manatee	3.7	2.2	-40.5	66.1	50.0
Okaloosa	5.7	3.4	-40.4	101.8	77.3
Collier	4.8	2.9	-39.6	85.7	65.9
Indian River	10.2	6.4	-37.3	182.1	145.5
Washington	7.5	4.8	-36.0	133.9	109.1
Clay	4.5	2.9	-35.6	80.4	65.9
Escambia	5.7	3.7	-35.1	101.8	84.1
Walton	6.7	4.4	-34.4	119.6	100.0
Levy	5.3	3.5	-34.0	94.6	79.5
Nassau	5.9	3.9	-33.9	105.4	88.6
Taylor	12.2	8.1	-33.6	217.9	184.1
Pinellas	4.3	2.9	-32.6	76.8	65.9
Osceola	4.4	3.0	-31.8	78.6	68.2
Alachua	3.5	2.4	-31.4	62.5	54.5
Sarasota	3.5	2.4	-31.4	62.5	54.5
Highlands	8.4	5.8	-31.0	150.0	131.8
Volusia	4.9	3.4	-30.6	87.5	77.3
Bay	9.5	6.6	-30.5	169.6	150.0
Santa Rosa	5.5	3.9	-29.1	98.2	88.6
Citrus	7.3	5.3	-27.4	130.4	120.5
St. Lucie	11.1	8.1	-27.0	198.2	184.0
Marion	5.3	4.0	-24.5	94.6	90.9
Gadsden	5.2	4.0	-23.1	92.9	90.9
DeSoto	6.5	5.0	-23.1	116.1	113.6
Palm Beach	6.4	5.0	-21.9	114.3	113.6
Glades	8.7	6.8	-21.8	155.4	154.5
Lee	3.4	2.7	-20.6	60.7	61.4
Charlotte	4.5	3.6	-20.0	80.4	81.8
Martin	6.5	5.2	-20.0	116.1	118.2
Brevard	5.1	4.2	-17.6	91.1	95.5
Wakulla	4.1	3.4	-17.1	73.2	77.3
Hendry	11.8	9.8	-16.9	210.7	222.7
Broward	5.4	4.5	-16.7	96.4	102.3
Flagler	4.7	4.0	-14.9	83.9	90.9
Dade	7.6	6.5	-14.5	135.7	147.7
Leon	3.1	2.7	-12.9	55.4	61.4
Okeechobee	7.4	6.5	-12.2	132.1	147.7
Putnam	6.4	5.7	-10.9	114.3	129.5
Hardee	10.5	9.5	-9.5	187.5	215.9
Calhoun	6.5	5.9	-9.2	116.1	134.1
Dixie	6.4	6.0	-6.3	114.3	136.4
Hamilton	7.4	7.0	-5.4	132.1	159.1
Franklin	6.5	5.7	-5.0	107.1	129.5
Monroe	2.6	2.5	-3.8	46.4	56.8
Bradford	4.0	4.0	0.0	71.4	90.9
Holmes	6.8	6.8	0.0	121.4	154.5
Jefferson	4.5	5.0	11.1	80.4	113.6
Jackson	5.7	7.7	35.1	101.8	175.0
Liberty	4.1	5.6	36.6	73.2	127.3
Gulf	7.3	16.0	119.2	130.4	363.6

CALCULATIONS BASED ON MONTHLY STATISTICS FROM TH FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT
SECURITY, BUREAU OF LABOR MARKET AND PERFORMANCE INFORMATION

 Despite the employment expansion throughout most of Florida, wages in most counties stayed far below the national average.  In 1997--the most recent date for which county-level wage
information is available-- the average wage for Florida was $26,530, or 89 percent that of the U.S.  Average earnings for most counties were considerably below this, however, as shown in the fourth column of table 12 below.  In 1997 the average wages for half of Florida's counties were approximately 75 percent or less than that for the U.S. as a whole.

                                                                        Average wages per job                                         Ratio of average wages for Florida and
                                                                     (not adjusted for inflation)                                                 counties versus U.S.

U.S., Florida, and counties	1989	1997	1989	1997
U.S., total	$22,262	$29,814	100.0	100.0
Florida, total	20,225	26,530	90.8	89.0
Glades	13,684	16,460	61.5	55.2
Lafayette	13,405	17,834	60.2	59.8
Franklin	13,380	18,188	60.1	61.0
Jefferson	13,493	18,260	60.6	61.2
Holmes	13,435	18,427	60.3	61.8
Highlands	15,029	18,624	67.5	62.5
Levy	14,476	18,664	65.0	62.6
Hendry	16,636	18,697	74.7	62.7
DeSoto	13,992	18,859	62.9	63.3
Suwannee	14,830	18,867	66.6	63.3
Hardee	13,405	18,966	60.2	63.6
Madison	15,200	18,997	68.3	63.7
Calhoun	14,825	19,618	66.6	65.8
Walton	13,758	19,655	61.8	65.9
Baker	15,420	19,672	69.3	66.0
Gilchrist	15,310	19,808	68.8	66.4
Jackson	15,216	19,894	68.3	66.7
Dixie	16,723	19,917	75.1	66.8
Okeechobee	15,807	20,048	71.0	67.2
Gadsden	15,714	20,248	70.6	67.9
Washington	15,656	20,629	70.3	69.2
Osceola	16,280	20,771	73.1	69.7
Clay	16,601	20,909	74.6	70.1
Flagler	16,582	20,938	74.5	70.2
Lake	16,400	20,960	73.7	70.3
Bradford	15,438	20,969	69.3	70.3
Wakulla	16,811	21,276	75.5	71.4
Manatee	17,363	21,324	78.0	71.5
Pasco	16,218	21,432	72.9	71.9
Hernando	16,415	16,415	73.7	72.4
Liberty	15,637	21,801	70.2	73.1
Charlotte	17,008	17,008	76.4	73.4
Volusia	16,896	22,013	75.9	73.8
Marion	16,930	22,273	76.0	74.7
Columbia	16,500	22,320	74.1	74.9
Sumter	15,487	22,422	69.6	75.2
Putnam	17,635	22,573	79.2	75.7
Monroe	17,573	22,645	78.9	76.0
Union	17,316	22,946	77.8	77.0
St. Johns	16,689	22,986	75.0	77.1
Santa Rosa	17,637	23,019	79.2	77.2
Citrus	16,863	23,128	75.7	77.6
Bay	17,211	23,178	77.3	77.7
Alachua	18,476	23,398	83.0	78.5
St. Lucie	17,846	23,505	80.2	78.8
Indian River	18,560	23,570	83.4	79.1
Okaloosa	18,369	24,023	82.5	80.6
Taylor	19,156	24,037	86.0	86.0
Lee	18,429	24,056	82.8	80.7
Martin	19,232	24,588	86.4	82.5
Polk	18,636	24,926	83.7	83.6
Sarasota	18,651	25,147	83.8	84.3
Escambia	19,548	25,311	87.8	84.9
Leon	18,928	25,339	85.0	85.0
Nassau	20,983	25,443	94.3	85.3
Collier	17,903	25,673	80.4	86.1
Seminole	19,041	26,134	85.5	87.7
Gulf	20,094	26,237	90.3	88.0
Pinellas	19,452	27,073	87.4	90.8
Orange	21,464	27,514	96.4	92.3
Hillsborough	20,663	27,632	92.8	92.7
Hamilton	24,120	27,886	108.3	93.5
Broward	21,301	28,262	95.7	94.8
Brevard	22,641	28,372	101.7	95.2
Duval	21,576	28,638	96.9	96.1
Dade	22,349	29,073	100.4	97.5
Palm Beach	22,339	29,364	100.3	98.5

SOURCE:  Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce, "Average Wage Per Job, for Countes and Metropolitan Areas, Full- and Part-Time by Place of Work." http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/reis/ca34/flwsavg.htm.
Hardcopy data for 1989 available from Bureau of Economic Analysis, Washington, D.C.

     The average wage for the entire state is higher than averages for most counties because eight of the nine top-earner counties are also the most populous counties, accounting for a large number of Florida workers.  The relatively high averages for workers in these populous counties inflate the state average beyond wage levels of more typical counties.  Generally, the counties with the lowest average earnings are among the state's smaller counties, typically in the agricultural rural areas of the state.

     Table 13 below expresses the same data in real terms, that is, corrected for inflation.  In this table, counties are arranged according to rate of wage growth for the 1989 to 1997 period, from lowest to highest.  Counties whose real wages declined over the 8-year period are listed first.  It is clear from these tabulations that real wages throughout most of Florida increased sluggishly, at best.  In 50 of Florida’s 67 counties wages grew less rapidly than in the nation as a whole.  Thirty-six of these had wage growth less than half the national average. Sluggish wage growth was typical of most counties, including those with rapid rates of employment growth.

                                                  Average wages                           Percent change                     Ratio of Florida-to-U.S.wages
                                                                adjusted for inflation                 adjusted for inflation,*                 (expressed as percentage)

U.S., Florida, and Counties	1989	1997	1989-1997	1989	1997
U.S., total	$18,158	$18,918	4.18	100.0	100.0
Florida, total	16,497	16,834	2.04	90.9	89.0
Hendry	13,569	11,864	-12.57	74.7	62.7
Hamilton	19,674	17,694	-10.06	108.3	93.5
Dixie	13,640	12,638	-7.35	75.1	66.8
Glades	11,162	10,444	-6.43	61.5	55.2
Nassau	17,115	16,144	-5.67	94.3	85.3
Manatee	14,162	13,530	-4.46	78.0	71.5
Highlands	12,259	11,817	-3.60	67.5	62.5
Madison	12,398	12,054	-2.78	68.3	63.7
Brevard	18,467	18,003	-2.52	101.7	95.2
Taylor	15,625	15,252	-2.39	86.0	80.6
Clay	13,541	13,267	-2.02	74.6	70.1
Flagler	13,525	13,286	-1.77	74.5	70.2
Wakulla	13,712	13,500	-1.55	75.5	71.4
Alachua	15,070	14,846	-1.48	83.0	78.5
Okeechobee	12,893	12,721	-1.34	71.0	67.2
Indian River	15,139	14,956	-1.21	83.4	79.1
Suwanee	12,096	11,971	-1.03	66.6	63.3
Baker	12,577	12,482	-0.76	69.3	66.0
Osceola	13,279	13,180	-0.75	73.1	69.7
Lake	13,377	13,299	-0.58	73.7	70.3
Martin	15,687	15,602	-0.54	86.4	82.5
Putnam	14,384	14,323	-0.43	79.2	75.7
Orange	17,507	17,458	-0.28	96.4	92.3
Charlotte	13,873	13,879	0.04	76.4	73.4
Gadsen	12,817	12,848	0.24	70.6	67.9
Monroe	14,334	14,369	0.24	78.9	76.0
Levy	11,808	11,843	0.30	65.0	62.6
Gilchrist	12,488	12,569	0.65	68.8	66.4
Escambia	15,945	16,060	0.73	87.8	84.9
Dade	18,229	18,447	1.20	700.4	97.5
Volusia	13,781	13,986	1.35	75.9	73.8
Santa Rosa	14,386	14,606	1.53	79.2	77.2
Lee	15,032	15,264	1.54	82.8	80.7
Gulf	16,390	16,648	1.57	90.3	88.0
Jackson	12,411	12,623	1.71	68.4	66.7
Okaloosa	14,983	15,243	1.74	82.5	80.6
Palm Beach	18,221	18,632	2.26	100.3	98.5
Hernando	13,893	13,695	2.29	73.7	72.4
Marion	13,809	14,133	2.34	76.0	74.7
St. Lucie	14,556	14,914	2.46	80.2	78.8
Washington	12,770	13,089	2.50	70.3	69.2
Pasco	13,228	13,599	2.80	72.9	71.9
Calhoun	12,092	12,448	2.94	66.6	65.8
Union	14,124	14,560	3.08	77.8	77.0
Broward	17,374	17,933	3.21	95.7	94.8
Duval	17,599	18,171	3.25	96.9	96.1
Lafayette	10,934	11,316	3.49	60.2	59.8
Hillsborough	16,854	17,533	4.03	92.8	92.7
Polk	15,201	15,816	4.05	83.7	83.6
Leon	15,439	16,078	4.14	85.0	85.0
Bay	14,038	14,707	4.76	77.3	77.7
DeSoto	11,413	11,966	4.85	62.9	63.3
Sarasota	15,213	15,956	4.89	83.8	84.3
Columbia	13,459	14,162	5.23	74.1	74.9
Jefferson	11,006	11,586	5.28	60.6	61.2
Bradford	12,592	13,305	5.66	69.3	70.3
Franklin	10,914	11,541	5.75	60.1	61.0
Citrus	13,754	14,675	6.69	75.7	77.6
Holmes	10,958	11,692	6.70	60.4	61.8
Seminole	15,531	16,582	6.77	85.5	87.7
St. Johns	13,613	14,585	7.14	75.0	77.1
Pinellas	15,866	17,178	8.27	87.4	90.8
Liberty	12,754	13,833	8.46	70.2	73.1
Hardee	10,934	12,034	10.06	60.2	63.6
Walton	11,222	12,471	11.14	61.8	65.9
Collier	14,603	16,290	11.55	80.4	86.1
Sumter	12,632	14,227	12.63	69.6	75.2

Current dollars were adjusted using the consumer price index for wage earners CPI-W, 1982-84=100). The CPI-W for 1989 is 123.3; for 1997 it is 157.9.  Thus, average wages had to increase by 28.06 percent to keep up with inflation.

SOURCE:  Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce, "Average Wage Per Job, for Countes and Metropolitan Areas, Full- and Part-Time by Place of Work." http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/reis/ca34/flwsavg.htm
Hardcopy data for 1989 available directly from Bureau of Economic Analysis, Washington, D.C.

     Because the most recent county-level wage data are for 1997, they underestimate the full impact of the economic expansion.  We know that the ratio of Florida’s average wage to that for the U.S. improved from  89 percent in 1997 to 89. 6 percent for the fourth quarter of 1998 and we would expect that many county figures would improve accordingly.  Nevertheless, the 1997 figures show that the average wage for the state exceeds  wages in most counties.  Similarly, the 1989-to-1997 trends examined here indicate that for much of the period and for many counties wages have been “playing catch-up”–edging back to their pre-recessionary levels--rather than rising to new heights as has been typical of past expansions.   We await updated figures to determine the degree of improvement by county.

VII.  Conclusion

     The economy of Florida is doing quite well as of Labor Day 1999.  Unemployment is falling and is below national averages.  Employment in the state is growing rapidly.  Real per capita income has been growing, albeit less rapidly than for the nation as a whole.

     Yet, the condition of workers is much less positive than one would expect, given the booming economy and the booming labor market.  State hourly wage rates as of 1998 had not yet caught up to 1989 levels, and people are only raising their incomes slightly by working longer hours, working more jobs, or adding more bread-earners per family.  Stress on workers and their families increases.

     Compared with the U.S. as a whole, and compared with the nation’s Southeast Region, on most measures of worker well being Florida is sliding backward.  The state’s public policies have not given workers’ issues a high priority.  The state has provided inferior legislation protections for workers and their organizations (unions).

     Within the state, prosperity is also distributed unevenly.  A majority of counties are faring even worse than the state as a whole because a few populous and wealthier counties pull state averages up.

    The reality of working life for workers in Florida is not as positive as a superficial look at employment and unemployment figures would indicate.  Even average income figures overstate worker well being, because they are skewed upward by the large investment income of Florida’s wealthier citizens.  On this Labor Day we should take notice that workers in our state often labor under standards and conditions well below national or regional norms.  In short, our state, our workers, and our policy makers could be doing better.