Portuguese Expansion and the Colonization of Angola to1700

The history of relations between Africa and Europe encompasses four distinct periods. The first being what can be described as the "Age of Reconnaissance", in which Europeans became better acquainted with lands beyond Europe and sought ways to exploit these territories for the benefit of European potentates. During this period, Europeans sought in Africa commodities (gold, salt, silver, wheat, and cloth to name a few) for home consumption and to achieve a better balance of trade with other European nations.

That period gave way to the era of mercantilism whereas European powers began to claim lands across the Atlantic, and realized that agricultural production could yield positive results by producing staple commodities for European consumption and also by providing military outposts composed of citizens seeking to better their plight abroad. These events changed the objectives of Europeans in regards to their dealings with Africa. While the foundations for the slave trade had been laid in the previous era, this period saw the trade in men take first priority. Beginning in the latter years of the fifteenth century, the slave trade grew dramatically as European colonial possessions in the Americas expanded reaching its apex in the second half of the eighteenth century.

At the close of the period of intense slave trading in Africa, the international balance of power revealed dramatic changes. England surfaced as the dominate power within the Atlantic community followed by Holland and France. Spain and Portugal were relegated to "semiperipheral" positions in the structure that emerged. In this era the European practice of mercantilism in the West began to see its curtain come down as nations began to achieve independence and the possibility of colonization in the East was realized. Not to mention, some metropolitan powers had interests in the marginalization of their hitherto cherished colonies in the Caribbean. With these changes, Africa would become integrated in different ways, providing different uses to the leading and industrializing nations of Europe. Attempts were made to end the slave trade and to reap new benefits from Africa. This era of colonialism in the East saw the exploitation of Africa with a focus on production in Africa. Produce such as palm oil and rubber were sought in Africa with indigenous peoples forced to provide the arduous labor necessary for the extraction of these commodities.

Throughout the 1960's and 70's (Zimbabwe and Namibia came under African rule in the 1980's) African countries began to gain independence and this process was accompanied by enthusiasm throughout the continent. A brief period of economic growth was followed by stagnation. Furthermore, civil conflicts arose, often encouraged and fueled by foreign influence in political, military, and financial arenas. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the relationship between the Portuguese and the African entities they encountered before 1700 and how these developments contributed to the occupation of Angola. It is the first of a four part series designed to analyze the impact of exchanges between the Portuguese and the Africans they encountered throughout the aforementioned eras of European-African relations. Emphasis will be placed on the role the Portuguese in Angola, as the lion's share of Portugal's endeavors were directed toward that territory.

Portugal, which was the last European power to relinquish its imperial status in Africa, was the first to actively engage Africans. The factors that lead to this development resulted from peculiarities of Portugal in relation to its neighbors that bordered the Mediterranean. The Portuguese were linked to the trading systems of the Mediterranean by Italian and Spanish seafarers and merchants. The excursions of the sea that later occurred were largely due to the initiatives of Prince Henry.

After ousting the Muslims from Portugal, the Portuguese proceeded to Morocco resulting in a victory at Ceuta in 1415. Prince Henry was knighted for his services in that campaign and made exploration a priority. With a resurgence of confidence germinating from its recent military successes and a knowledge of shipbuilding gained from foreign merchants who sought the safety of the harbor at Lisbon, Prince Henry sought the counsel of men well acquainted with the sea. He gathered mapmakers, shipbuilders, navigators, mathematicians, astronomers, and experienced seamen.

The objectives Prince Henry's initial efforts appear to have been different from the factors that compelled Portuguese to explore the seemingly infinite sea and vast lands to the south. Five factors seemed to have served as Henry's motivation: 1) To explore the African coast beyond the Canary Islands as no man had either described it in writing or purported to have known what these lands possessed; 2) To seek Christian peoples with whom it may be possible to trade; 3) To determine how far the land of the Moors extended as to knowledge of the powers of -Portugal's enemy; 4) To seek a Christian king (the legendary Prester John) to aid in the conflict with the Muslims; and 5) To spread Christianity. The caravan routes had come to be dominated by Muslims; therefore Muslims had little incentive and the Portuguese much incentive to seek a sea route. The use of the caravel and knowledge of oceanic wind patterns made the seafaring expeditions of the Portuguese more efficient.

More pragmatic factors may have served to push the Portuguese beyond their borders. Because the nobility lacked sufficient sources of wealth in a country of agrarian poverty, they were willing to engage in merchant adventures. The price of wheat in Lisbon caused crises, as the city often imported wheat from both Spain and Britain. The establishment of colonies had been a project already undertaken throughout the Mediterranean thus the Portuguese were already acquainted with the concept of colonialism. Making use of the uninhabited islands of Azores and Madeira that were discovered between 1427-31, Portuguese investors established wheat fields making use of Genoan capital and labor composed of impoverished European immigrants and enslaved Africans. Though the islands were relatively close to Portugal (the Azores laying west and the Madeira further to the south), process could be considered between the old world plantation structures and the new world. Employing a long established idea of colonial plantation production, the steps were laid for a new era of plantation societies, however with enslaved Africans as the predominant labor form.

From the Azores and Madeira, Portuguese expansion proceeded to the Canary Islands that were about two hundred fifty miles further south. However the Canaries were inhabited and thus subjection of its natives was necessary to establish wine vineyards, which were considered to yield a higher profit than wheat. These endeavors were profitable but faced opposition from established wine producers at home. Nonetheless, Canary Island wine still trickled into Portugal despite imposed restrictions. This phase of Portuguese colonial expansion was a watershed in establishing the terms on which Europeans were to respond to natives inhabiting lands desirable to them. The conquest of non-European "infidels" became justifiable, especially as merchants testified that these conquests, as well as the slave trade, paid of the costs expensive campaigns against the Muslims. The Canaries became Spanish possessions after 1480 but maintained close commercial links with Portugal.

Next Portuguese energies were directed toward another archipelago, the Cape Verde islands which lay west of the mouth of the Senegal River. Just as wheat was a scarce commodity in Portugal, so were textiles. Consequently cotton plantations were established in Cape Verde seeking to cater to the shortage at home and the demand for cotton in Africa.David Birmingham contends that the rise of the Cape Verde cotton industry indicated the beginning of a "self-perpetuating" mode of exchange between Europeans and Africans in which Africans traded men to attain textiles with the bondsmen manning the cotton plantations.

The colonization of the four islands discovered 1471-72 (Sao Thome, Fernando Po, Principe, and Annobon) off the Niger delta would result in yet another experiment. Here the production of sugar would take center stage. Sao Thome possessed soil quite conducive to agricultural production. A greater amount of capital and organization was necessary to establish sugar plantations in Sao Thome with a substantial amount of the capital going towards labor. The next phase in this process resulted in an even greater intensification of the slave trade. In 1471 merchants found a link to interior gold mines on the Gold Coast and were thus forced to provide commodities and prices competitive with the caravan trade. There was a shortage of labor in the region and the Portuguese therefore possessed the bartering tool needed to gain access to this gold market - slaves. Sao Thome became an entrepot for slave trading and substantial amounts of trade occurred between the Portuguese and African dictates with the annual amount of gold being purchased by the Portuguese being measured at about 10, 000 ounces. Later fortresses were built by the Portuguese along the Gulf of Guinea, with Elmina being the most notable among them. This exchange in gold and slaves did not cover the cost of these expeditions and its architect, Prince Henry, died heavily in debt in 1460.

In late 1482 or early 1483 the mouth of the Congo River (named Zaire by the Portuguese) was discovered by the Portuguese shipman, Diogo Cao, and this was the start of a new episode of the Portuguese in Africa. Friendly relations were established with the Kongo kingdom of the interior and the voluntary conversion to Christianity began, with the Manikongo (the head of the Kongolese) and his family among the first converts. The kingdom eventually became split over the direction of interaction with the Portuguese and by 1506 the pro-Portuguese faction was the victor in the civil war that ensued. These conflicts were exploited by the beneficiaries of the slave trade, among them the Portuguese trader Fernao de Melo (governor of Sao Thome) and the Manikongo himself. The Kongo port of Mpinda developed into a trade center with the primary exchange being enslaved Africans for European cloth and metalware. This period also saw the rise of the mestico (individuals with African mothers and Portuguese fathers) as links between the interior and traders further west.

Since the initial conflicts at the turn of the century the region stayed relatively free of political turmoil, however this period was halted by the invasion of the Jaga, a nomadic group of warriors who invaded the Kongo Kingdom from the southeast. The exact origins of the Jaga are unknown but experts such as Jan Vansina have noted cultural connections between the Jaga and the Lunda-Luba. Nonetheless the Jaga were extraordinary military tacticians and succeeded in driving the Manikongo and the Portuguese from the capital. Alvaro, the Kongo king at the time of the invasion, appealed to the Portuguese crown for protection, offering tribute to the Portuguese king. Consequently, an army composed of six hundred troops mounted a campaign that eventually drove the Jaga from the Kongo Kingdom.

Despite modest success in the Kongo, the Portuguese were seeking a more stable and profitable locale to establish themselves. The region where the Portuguese attempted to establish this base was in the area of modern day Angola. Here the Portuguese encountered former vassals to the Kongo. Seizing the opportunity presented by the turbulence in the Kongo, many of the these former subjects grew in power and wanted to maintain the independence that the Kongelese instability offered them, notably among them was the Mbundu Kingdom of Ndongo.The relationship between the Manikongo and the Ngola (the Mbundu chief) deteriorated after the Ngola's refusal to discontinue slaving. The Manikongo, to no avail, appealed to John III, the Portuguese king that purported to oppose and prohibit the slave trade. In 1575 Paulo Dias de Novais, grandson of Bartholomeu Dias, was was extended 140 miles of costline by the Portuguese crown, landed at Luanda with 400 settlers. The Mubundu of Ndongo had grown considerably strong as a result of the slave trade. Relations between Novais and the Ngola fell off resulting in the murder of thirty or so Portuguese killed at the Ngola's court. The irony of this situation is that while the Portuguese crown were lenient in their slaving policies toward the Ndonga Kingdom, perhaps influenced by the profits that trickled in from the trade, they weakened the state where the held the most influence (Kongo), and gave rise to one that would subsequently challenge the Portuguese in Angola. Novais mounted an army, partially manned by Kongolese, aiming to dislodge the Ngola from the seat of power but was turned back by a tough, well organized Ngola force. Estimates have it that of the 2,000 Europeans soldiers deployed to Angola over the first 20 years, 1,200 either died or had to return. The early phases of the African/European conflicts in Angola and the Kongo reveal that Africans, during this time, were at least semi-autonomous, but also exhibits that the balance of power within African communities could and did shift as a consequence of European intervention.

In 1509-10 Afonso d' Albuquerque led a Portuguese military expedition that conquered the Arab settlements of East Africa. The trade that followed the conquest proved profitable for the Portuguese, as they traded god, slaves, and ivory (each of African origin) in the East in exchange for cloth, metal products, and glasswork from the West. The profitability of the Indian Ocean trade did not last long on account of the higher relative costs of sustaining the outposts once prices for pepper, the primary commodity of trade from the East, began to fetch low prices at home. Though the windfall in East Africa did not last long, it necessitated an intensification of the trades along West and Central-West Africa in gold and slaves respectively. Again the dynamics of trade between the Portuguese and Africans would shift, this time altered by the establishment plantations in Brazil.

The founding of the New World led to a dispute between Spain and Portugal as to what lands might be claimed by each. To avoid controversy, arbitration was sought by the Pope, who allocated the lands with a series of bulls. The initial judgement by the pope was appealed and in 1494 the Treaty of Tordesillas was established acknowledging Portuguese ownership of the territory the later named Brazil. Production of sugar emerged as a successful venture in Brazil necessitating heavy influxes of labor, which was provided by enslaved Africans. In addition, Brazil grew to be an important source of gold for Brazil, and over time African gold became less a priority to Portugal.

The 15th and 16th Centuries saw many accomplishments for Portugal. Before this era its weakness was that it lay outside the sphere of the lucrative trade in the Mediterranean community and this led to a natural expansion throughout the Atlantic, which it bordered on all fronts. But the costly military campaigns, often in the name of Christianity, placed a heavy human and financial toll on the crown and Portuguese financiers. In 1580 the Portuguese' actions in the burgeoning transatlantic world led to its domination by Spain. In that year King Manual, whose militancy outstripped his means, led Portuguese troops in battle in North Africa and was killed. The Portuguese thrown went to his nearest relative, Cardinal Henriques and eventually Portugal came under the control of Philip II of Spain. The maritime supremacy of the Portuguese had thus become a thing of the past, and the Spanish crown placed an even heavier toll of Portugal.

The events of southern Europe caused the Portuguese enclaves in West-Central Africa to remain undeveloped and tenuous; there were several administrative changes, they faced recalcitrant natives, and failed commercial hopes. By the 17th Century, the Portuguese had already been surpassed by the British and the Dutch both military and economically. During this era many nations began to realize that colonization and the plantation production of commodities in demand at home were capable of yielding huge returns. The obstacle that prevented Portugal from taking a more prominent role was the underdevelopment of the industries at home.

While both the Amsterdam and London were producing commodities that were cheaper and superior to Portuguese products, the Portuguese were forced to lead expeditions themselves in search of slaves and attempt to use international law and naval power to limit African interaction with other European traders. The Portuguese vacillated in their policies in Angola, often torn between the Mbundu and the Imbangala. After several failed collaborations with the Portuguese in Angola Queen Nzinga of the Mbundu retreated to the interior seizing Kasanje, a state that had grown considerably strong as the Portuguese weakened its rivals.

Even at this early stage in the history of African-European relation in West-Central Africa, European influence heavily impacted the course of events. The Dutch challenged Portuguese control of the region with the Kongo Kindom and Matambo siding with the Dutch and with some Ndongo and Imbangala tribes siding with the Portuguese. The seven year battle concluded in 1648 with the Portuguese preserving its power in the region and the subsequent launching of campaigns against all groups that had sided with the Dutch. The Kongo Kingdom was never again to achieve its position of prominence and Nzinga was again allied with the Portuguese.

This period in Central African history saw complex developments, many a sign of things to come. This phase of Portuguese expansion displayed the degree to which situations in Europe and the New World could have profound consequences on the lives of Africans and the structure of power in African communities. By the end of the 17th Century the Portuguese were compelled to abandon their hopes of discovering lucrative silver mines in the interior of Central Africa, saw their commercial ties along the Guinea Coast and Gold Coast weakened, realized that the African territories under their control could only be sustained by colonization and direct rule, and acknowledged the slave trade as the most productive endeavor available to them. The following century witnessed the most intense period of slaving in the region: this was promulgated by European traders on the coast, and the presence of the Portuguese colonists in Angola.

by Perry L. Kyles